Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1381-6128
ISSN (Online): 1873-4286

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Long-Term Metabolic Consequences in Patients with a History of Gestational Diabetes

Author(s): Eleni Kousta*, Adamantia Kontogeorgi, Stephen Robinson and Desmond G. Johnston

Volume 26, Issue 43, 2020

Page: [5564 - 5572] Pages: 9

DOI: 10.2174/1381612826666201106092423

Price: $65

Abstract

Gestational diabetes mellitus is a common metabolic complication of pregnancy. Universal guidelines on gestational diabetes have been impeded by the long-term controversies on its definition and screening strategies. The prevalence of gestational diabetes is rising all over the world, is significantly influenced by ethnicity and its rise is mainly attributed to increasing maternal obesity and age. Gestational diabetes mellitus has important long-term implications, including gestational diabetes recurrence, increased risk for developing type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease for the mother. Gestational diabetes mellitus may be viewed as a chronic metabolic disorder that is identified in women during gestation and may provide a unique opportunity for the early identification and primary prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease in these women. In this mini-review, the evolution of screening tests for gestational diabetes and guidelines are briefly described and metabolic and cardiovascular long-term consequences of women with a history of gestational diabetes are summarized. A summary of our own St. Mary’s Hospital-UK Research series on long-term metabolic consequences of 368 women with a history of gestational diabetes of 3 different ethnic groups and 482 control women is also included. We found that approximately 2 years following delivery, 37% of women with a history of gestational diabetes had abnormal glucose concentrations, but, most importantly, even those who were normoglycaemic, postpartum displayed metabolic abnormalities on detailed testing. Future research needs to focus on the prevention of gestational diabetes long-term complications, but also in identification of pre-pregnancy predictors and risk reduction before conception.

Keywords: Gestational diabetes, type 2 diabetes, metabolic consequences, definition, screening, cardiovascular disease, prevalence.

« Previous Next »
[1]
American Diabetes Association. 2. Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018. Diabetes Care 2018; 41(Suppl. 1): S13-27.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc18-S002] [PMID: 29222373]
[2]
Damm P, Houshmand-Oeregaard A, Kelstrup L, Lauenborg J, Mathiesen ER, Clausen TD. Gestational diabetes mellitus and long-term consequences for mother and offspring: a view from Denmark. Diabetologia 2016; 59(7): 1396-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-016-3985-5] [PMID: 27174368]
[3]
Johns EC, Denison FC, Norman JE, Reynolds RM. Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Mechanisms, Treatment, and Complications. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2018; 29(11): 743-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2018.09.004] [PMID: 30297319]
[4]
Duncan JM. Case of Pregnancy and Labour Complicated with Diabetes Mellitus. Edinburgh Med J 1873; 18(8): 696-8.
[PMID: 29639452]
[5]
Hoet JP, Lukens FD. Carbohydrate metabolism during pregnancy. Diabetes 1954; 3(1): 1-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diab.3.1.1] [PMID: 13141877]
[6]
Jackson WP. Studies in pre-diabetes. BMJ 1952; 2(4786): 690-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.4786.690] [PMID: 12978289]
[7]
Pedersen J. Diabetes and pregnancy; blood sugar of newborn infants during fasting and glucose administration. Ugeskr Laeger 1952; 114(21): 685.
[PMID: 14958933]
[8]
Carrington ER, Shuman CR, Reardon HS. Evaluation of the prediabetic state during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1957; 9(6): 664-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006250-195706000-00008] [PMID: 13431126]
[9]
O’Sullivan JB, Mahan CM. Criteria for the oral glucose tolerance test in pregnancy. Diabetes 1964; 13: 278-85.
[PMID: 14166677]
[10]
O’Sullivan JB, Mahan CM. Insulin treatment and high risk groups. Diabetes Care 1980; 3(3): 482-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.3.3.482] [PMID: 6993163]
[11]
O’Sullivan JB. Diabetes mellitus after GDM. Diabetes 1991; 40(Suppl. 2): 131-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diab.40.2.S131] [PMID: 1748242]
[12]
Mishra S, Rao CR, Shetty A. Trends in the Diagnosis of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Scientifica (Cairo) 2016; 2016: 5489015.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/5489015] [PMID: 27190681]
[13]
Carreiro MP, Nogueira AI, Ribeiro-Oliveira A. Controversies and Advances in Gestational Diabetes-An Update in the Era of Continuous Glucose Monitoring. J Clin Med 2018; 7(2): 11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcm7020011] [PMID: 29370080]
[14]
O’Sullivan JB, Charles D, Mahan CM, Dandrow RV. Gestational diabetes and perinatal mortality rate. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1973; 116(7): 901-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9378(16)33834-0] [PMID: 4718217]
[15]
O’Sullivan JB, Mahan CM, Charles D, Dandrow RV. Screening criteria for high-risk gestational diabetic patients. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1973; 116(7): 895-900.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9378(16)33833-9] [PMID: 4718216]
[16]
National Diabetes Data Group. Classification and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and other categories of glucose intolerance. Diabetes 1979; 28(12): 1039-57.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diab.28.12.1039] [PMID: 510803]
[17]
Carpenter MW, Coustan DR. Criteria for screening tests for gestational diabetes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1982; 144(7): 768-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-9378(82)90349-0] [PMID: 7148898]
[18]
Harper LM, Mele L, Landon MB, et al. Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units (MFMU) Network. Carpenter-Coustan Compared With National Diabetes Data Group Criteria for Diagnosing Gestational Diabetes. Obstet Gynecol 2016; 127(5): 893-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000001383] [PMID: 27054932]
[19]
World Health Organization. Definition, Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus and Its Complications. Report of a WHO Consultation Part I: Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus World Health Organization, 1999. Available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/66040/WHO_NCD_NCS_99.2.pdf;jsessionid=33FBE9A123AECAFCCEE65644A4D0EC4B?sequence=1
[20]
Metzger BE, Lowe LP, Dyer AR, et al. HAPO Study Cooperative Research Group. Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes. N Engl J Med 2008; 358(19): 1991-2002.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0707943] [PMID: 18463375]
[21]
Landon MB, Spong CY, Thom E, et al. Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network. A multicenter, randomized trial of treatment for mild gestational diabetes. N Engl J Med 2009; 361(14): 1339-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0902430] [PMID: 19797280]
[22]
Metzger BE, Gabbe SG, Persson B, et al. International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups Consensus Panel. International association of diabetes and pregnancy study groups recommendations on the diagnosis and classification of hyperglycemia in pregnancy. Diabetes Care 2010; 33(3): 676-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc09-1848] [PMID: 20190296]
[23]
World Health Organization. Diagnostic Criteria and Classification of Hyperglycaemia First Detected in Pregnancy. 2013; 1-62. Available at: https://www.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/85975/1/WHO_NMH_MND_13.2_eng.pdf?ua=1
[24]
Blumer I, Hadar E, Hadden DR, et al. Diabetes and pregnancy: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013; 98(11): 4227-49.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2013-2465] [PMID: 24194617]
[25]
Marathe PH, Gao HX, Close KL. American Diabetes Association standards of medical care in diabetes 2017. J Diabetes 2017; 9(4): 320-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1753-0407.12524] [PMID: 28070960]
[26]
ACOG Practice Bulletin No 190. Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Obstet Gynecol 2018; 131: 49-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000002501]
[27]
Brown FM, Wyckoff J. Application of One-Step IADPSG Versus Two-Step Diagnostic Criteria for Gestational Diabetes in the Real World: Impact on Health Services, Clinical Care, and Outcomes. Curr Diab Rep 2017; 17(10): 85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11892-017-0922-z] [PMID: 28799123]
[28]
Lowe WL Jr, Scholtens DM, Kuang A, et al. HAPO Follow-up Study Cooperative Research Group. Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome Follow-up Study (HAPO FUS): Maternal Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Childhood Glucose Metabolism. Diabetes Care 2019; 42(3): 372-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc18-1646] [PMID: 30655380]
[29]
Scholtens DM, Kuang A, Lowe LP, et al. HAPO Follow-up Study Cooperative Research Group; HAPO Follow-Up Study Cooperative Research Group. Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome Follow-up Study (HAPO FUS): Maternal Glycemia and Childhood Glucose Metabolism. Diabetes Care 2019; 42(3): 381-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc18-2021] [PMID: 30617141]
[30]
Berkowitz GS, Lapinski RH, Wein R, Lee D. Race/ethnicity and other risk factors for gestational diabetes. Am J Epidemiol 1992; 135(9): 965-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116408] [PMID: 1595695]
[31]
Eades CE, Cameron DM, Evans JMM. Prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus in Europe: A meta-analysis. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2017; 129: 173-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2017.03.030] [PMID: 28531829]
[32]
Farrar D, Simmonds M, Griffin S, et al. The identification and treatment of women with hyperglycaemia in pregnancy: an analysis of individual participant data, systematic reviews, meta-analyses and an economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess 2016; 20(86): 1-348.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3310/hta20860] [PMID: 27917777]
[33]
Sacks DA, Hadden DR, Maresh M, et al. HAPO Study Cooperative Research Group. Frequency of gestational diabetes mellitus at collaborating centers based on IADPSG consensus panel-recommended criteria: the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) Study. Diabetes Care 2012; 35(3): 526-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc11-1641] [PMID: 22355019]
[34]
Lavery JA, Friedman AM, Keyes KM, Wright JD, Ananth CV. Gestational diabetes in the United States: temporal changes in prevalence rates between 1979 and 2010. BJOG 2017; 124(5): 804-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.14236] [PMID: 27510598]
[35]
Chu SY, Callaghan WM, Kim SY, et al. Maternal obesity and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2007; 30(8): 2070-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc06-2559a] [PMID: 17416786]
[36]
Zhu Y, Zhang C. Prevalence of Gestational Diabetes and Risk of Progression to Type 2 Diabetes: a Global Perspective. Curr Diab Rep 2016; 16(1): 7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11892-015-0699-x] [PMID: 26742932]
[37]
Nguyen CL, Pham NM, Binns CW, Duong DV, Lee AH. Prevalence of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Eastern and Southeastern Asia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Diabetes Res 2018; 2018: 6536974.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/6536974] [PMID: 29675432]
[38]
Kim SY, England L, Sappenfield W, et al. Racial/ethnic differences in the percentage of gestational diabetes mellitus cases attributable to overweight and obesity, Florida, 2004-2007. Prev Chronic Dis 2012; 9: E88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5888/pcd9.110249] [PMID: 22515970]
[39]
Schwartz N, Nachum Z, Green MS. The prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus recurrence--effect of ethnicity and parity: a metaanalysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2015; 213(3): 310-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2015.03.011] [PMID: 25757637]
[40]
Cheung NW, Byth K. Population health significance of gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care 2003; 26(7): 2005-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.26.7.2005] [PMID: 12832303]
[41]
Bellamy L, Casas JP, Hingorani AD, Williams D. Type 2 diabetes mellitus after gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2009; 373(9677): 1773-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60731-5] [PMID: 19465232]
[42]
Kim C, Newton KM, Knopp RH. Gestational diabetes and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review. Diabetes Care 2002; 25(10): 1862-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.25.10.1862] [PMID: 12351492]
[43]
Kramer CK, Campbell S, Retnakaran R. Gestational diabetes and the risk of cardiovascular disease in women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetologia 2019; 62(6): 905-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-019-4840-2] [PMID: 30843102]
[44]
Perera MJ, Reina SA, Elfassy T, et al. Gestational diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors and disease in U.S. Hispanics/Latinas in the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos (HCHS/SOL). Women Health 2019; 59(5): 481-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03630242.2018.1500415] [PMID: 30040600]
[45]
Shen Y, Li W, Leng J, et al. High risk of metabolic syndrome after delivery in pregnancies complicated by gestational diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2019; 150: 219-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2019.03.030] [PMID: 30905596]
[46]
Rivero K, Portal VL, Vieira M, Behle I. Prevalence of the impaired glucose metabolism and its association with risk factors for coronary artery disease in women with gestational diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2008; 79(3): 433-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2007.10.015] [PMID: 18045723]
[47]
Heitritter SM, Solomon CG, Mitchell GF, Skali-Ounis N, Seely EW. Subclinical inflammation and vascular dysfunction in women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90(7): 3983-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2004-2494] [PMID: 15840749]
[48]
Bo S, Valpreda S, Menato G, et al. Should we consider gestational diabetes a vascular risk factor? Atherosclerosis 2007; 194(2): e72-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2006.09.017] [PMID: 17055515]
[49]
Tarim E, Yigit F, Kilicdag E, et al. Early onset of subclinical atherosclerosis in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2006; 27(2): 177-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/uog.2687] [PMID: 16435313]
[50]
Anastasiou E, Lekakis JP, Alevizaki M, et al. Impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilatation in women with previous gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care 1998; 21(12): 2111-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.21.12.2111] [PMID: 9839102]
[51]
Lappas M, Jinks D, Shub A, Willcox JC, Georgiou HM, Permezel M. Postpartum IGF-I and IGFBP-2 levels are prospectively associated with the development of type 2 diabetes in women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Metab 2016; 42(6): 442-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabet.2016.06.004] [PMID: 27387739]
[52]
Kousta E, Lawrence NJ, Godsland IF, et al. Insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction in normoglycaemic European women with a history of gestational diabetes. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2003; 59(3): 289-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2265.2003.01820.x] [PMID: 12919151]
[53]
Molęda P, Homa K, Safranow K, Celewicz Z, Fronczyk A, Majkowska L. Women with normal glucose tolerance and a history of gestational diabetes show significant impairment of β-cell function at normal insulin sensitivity. Diabetes Metab 2013; 39(2): 155-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabet.2012.11.003] [PMID: 23369626]
[54]
Hedderson MM, Ferrara A. High blood pressure before and during early pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2008; 31(12): 2362-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc08-1193] [PMID: 18809624]
[55]
Harville EW, Viikari JS, Raitakari OT. Preconception cardiovascular risk factors and pregnancy outcome. Epidemiology 2011; 22(5): 724-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e318225c960] [PMID: 21709559]
[56]
Hedderson MM, Darbinian J, Havel PJ, et al. Low prepregnancy adiponectin concentrations are associated with a marked increase in risk for development of gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2013; 36(12): 3930-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc13-0389] [PMID: 23990523]
[57]
Savvidou M, Nelson SM, Makgoba M, Messow CM, Sattar N, Nicolaides K. First-trimester prediction of gestational diabetes mellitus: examining the potential of combining maternal characteristics and laboratory measures. Diabetes 2010; 59(12): 3017-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/db10-0688] [PMID: 20876721]
[58]
Kousta E, Efstathiadou Z, Lawrence NJ, et al. The impact of ethnicity on glucose regulation and the metabolic syndrome following gestational diabetes. Diabetologia 2006; 49(1): 36-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-005-0058-6] [PMID: 16341688]
[59]
Kousta E, Lawrence NJ, Godsland IF, et al. Early metabolic defects following gestational diabetes in three ethnic groups of anti-GAD antibodies negative women with normal fasting glucose. Hormones (Athens) 2007; 6(2): 138-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.14310/horm.2002.111109] [PMID: 17704045]
[60]
Kousta E, Parker KH, Lawrence NJ, et al. Delayed metabolic and thermogenic response to a mixed meal in normoglycemic European women with previous gestational diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87(7): 3407-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jcem.87.7.8698] [PMID: 12107258]
[61]
Kousta E, Lawrence NJ, Penny A, et al. Women with a history of gestational diabetes are shorter than women with normal glucose tolerance in pregnancy. Diabet Med 2000; 17: 792-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1464-5491.2000.00393.x] [PMID: 11131104]
[62]
Kousta E, Cela E, Lawrence N, et al. The prevalence of polycystic ovaries in women with a history of gestational diabetes. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2000; 53(4): 501-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2265.2000.01123.x] [PMID: 11012576]
[63]
Alberti KG, Zimmet P, Shaw J. IDF Epidemiology Task Force Consensus Group. The metabolic syndrome-a new worldwide definition. Lancet 2005; 366(9491): 1059-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67402-8] [PMID: 16182882]
[64]
Brite J, Shiroma EJ, Bowers K, et al. Height and the risk of gestational diabetes: variations by race/ethnicity. Diabet Med 2014; 31(3): 332-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dme.12355] [PMID: 24308574]
[65]
Yao K, Bian C, Zhao X. Association of polycystic ovary syndrome with metabolic syndrome and gestational diabetes: Aggravated complication of pregnancy. Exp Ther Med 2017; 14(2): 1271-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/etm.2017.4642] [PMID: 28810587]
[66]
American Diabetes Association. Management of diabetes in pregnancy: Standards of medical care in diabetes-2018. Diabetes Care 2018; 41(Suppl. 1): S137-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc18-S013] [PMID: 29222384]
[67]
Metzger BE, Buchanan TA, Coustan DR, et al. Summary and recommendations of the fifth international workshop-conference on gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2007; 30(Suppl. 2): S251-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc07-s225] [PMID: 17596481]
[68]
Farrar D, Tuffnell DJ, West J, West HM. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion versus multiple daily injections of insulin for pregnant women with diabetes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016; 6(6): CD005542.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD005542.pub3] [PMID: 27272351]
[69]
Nachum Z, Zafran N, Salim R, et al. Glyburide versus metformin and their combination for the treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus: A randomized controlled study. Diabetes Care 2017; 40(3): 332-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc16-2307] [PMID: 28077460]
[70]
Lindsay RS, Loeken MR. Metformin use in pregnancy: promises and uncertainties. Diabetologia 2017; 60(9): 1612-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-017-4351-y] [PMID: 28770325]
[71]
Brown J, Alwan NA, West J, et al. Lifestyle interventions for the treatment of women with gestational diabetes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017; 5: CD011970.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011970.pub2] [PMID: 28472859]
[72]
Bao W, Tobias DK, Bowers K, et al. Physical activity and sedentary behaviors associated with risk of progression from gestational diabetes mellitus to type 2 diabetes mellitus: a prospective cohort study. JAMA Intern Med 2014; 174(7): 1047-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.1795] [PMID: 24841449]
[73]
Ratner RE, Christophi CA, Metzger BE, et al. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Prevention of diabetes in women with a history of gestational diabetes: effects of metformin and lifestyle interventions. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93(12): 4774-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2008-0772] [PMID: 18826999]
[74]
Aroda VR, Christophi CA, Edelstein SL, et al. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. The effect of lifestyle intervention and metformin on preventing or delaying diabetes among women with and without gestational diabetes: the Diabetes Prevention Program outcomes study 10-year follow-up. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015; 100(4): 1646-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2014-3761] [PMID: 25706240]
[75]
Song C, Lyu Y, Li C, et al. Long-term risk of diabetes in women at varying durations after gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis with more than 2 million women. Obes Rev 2018; 19(3): 421-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/obr.12645] [PMID: 29266655]
[76]
Nielsen KK, Kapur A, Damm P, de Courten M, Bygbjerg IC. From screening to postpartum follow-up - the determinants and barriers for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) services, a systematic review. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2014; 14: 41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2393-14-41] [PMID: 24450389]
[77]
O’Reilly SL, Dunbar JA, Versace V, et al. MAGDA Study Group. Mothers after gestational diabetes in Australia (MAGDA): A randomised controlled trial of a postnatal diabetes prevention program. PLoS Med 2016; 13(7): e1002092.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002092] [PMID: 27459502]
[78]
O’Reilly SL, Leonard Y, Dasgupta K, Terkildsen Maindal H. Diabetes after pregnancy prevention trials: Systematic review for core outcome set development. Matern Child Nutr 2020; 16(3): e12947.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12947] [PMID: 31943785]
[79]
Bianco ME, Josefson JL. Hyperglycemia during pregnancy and long-term offspring outcomes. Curr Diab Rep 2019; 19(12): 143.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11892-019-1267-6] [PMID: 31754898]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
41
World Health Day
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy