Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1381-6128
ISSN (Online): 1873-4286

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Medicinal Applications of Cannabinoids Extracted from Cannabis sativa (L.): A New Route in the Fight Against COVID-19?

Author(s): Shah Khalid*, Faisal A. Almalki, Taibi Ben Hadda*, Ammar Bader, Tareq Abu-Izneid, Malika Berredjem, Eman R. Elsharkawy and Ali M. Alqahtani*

Volume 27, Issue 13, 2021

Published on: 02 December, 2020

Page: [1564 - 1578] Pages: 15

DOI: 10.2174/1381612826666201202125807

Price: $65

Abstract

Cannabis sativa is a well-known plant that has been recognized for its benefits since ancient times by several medicinal systems, including those of China, India, Greece, and Egypt. Although C. sativa is one of the most investigated medicinal plants in the world, it faces some of the greatest controversies surrounding its legalization and use as a medication. C. sativa contains several hundred phytoconstituents, including the infamous “cannabinoids”. It is necessary to properly understand the medicinal importance of these phytochemicals and spread awareness among the countries where cannabis is still facing legal obstacles. The current review focuses on the most recent literature pertaining to various applications of cannabinoids, with a special focus on the medicinal aspect of these phytochemicals. Peer-reviewed articles focusing on the importance of cannabis and cannabinoids are the target of this review. Articles were selected based on the relevance to the general scope of the work, i.e., application of cannabinoids. Cannabinoids can truly be regarded as wonder drugs, considering their immense diversity of usage. Unfortunately, however, many of the mares have never been researched biologically or pharmacologically due to their low yield in the plant. However, the approval of some cannabinoids by the FDA (along with other recognized national medical health systems) has opened the horizon for the use of these natural drugs in medicines such as Epidiolex® (cannabidiol, used for the treatment of severe forms of epilepsy) and Sativex®(Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol, used for the treatment of spasticity caused by multiple sclerosis). Many pharmacological properties of C. sativa are attributed to cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive component, along with Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), a psychoactive component. This review addresses the most important applications or current utilization of cannabinoids in a variety of treatments such as chronic pain, cancer, emesis, anorexia, irritable bowel syndrome, communicable diseases, glaucoma, and central nervous system disorders. The biosynthetic pathway of cannabinoids is also discussed. In short, cannabis has a myriad of bioactive compounds that have the potential to increase the list of approved cannabinoids suitable for therapy.

Keywords: Cannabis sativa L., Cannabinoids, THC, CBD, therapeutic and industrial applications.

« Previous Next »
[1]
Andre CM, Hausman J-F, Guerriero G. Cannabis sativa: the plant of the thousand and one molecules. Front Plant Sci 2016; 7: 19-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2016.00019] [PMID: 26870049]
[2]
Bonini SA, Premoli M, Tambaro S, et al. Cannabis sativa: A comprehensive ethnopharmacological review of a medicinal plant with a long history. J Ethnopharmacol 2018; 227: 300-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2018.09.004] [PMID: 30205181]
[3]
Henschke P. Cannabis: An ancient friend or foe? What works and doesn’t work. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2019; 24(2): 149-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.siny.2019.02.001] [PMID: 30827870]
[4]
Costa LG, Garrick J, Roque PJ, Pellacani C. Chapter 1 -Nutraceuticals in CNS Diseases: Potential Mechanisms of NeuroprotectionGupta RC, Nutraceuticals. Academic Press: Boston 2016; pp. 3-13.
[5]
Pellati F, Borgonetti V, Brighenti V, Biagi M, Benvenuti S, Corsi L. Cannabis sativa L. and nonpsychoactive cannabinoids: their chemistry and role against oxidative stress, inflammation, and cancer. BioMed Res Int 2018; 20181691428
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/1691428] [PMID: 30627539]
[6]
Elhendawy MA, Wanas AS, Radwan MM, Azzaz NA, Toson ES, ElSohly MA. Chemical and biological studies of Cannabis sativa roots. Med Cannabis Cannabinoids 2019; 1(2): 104-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000495582] [PMID: 32296742]
[7]
Flores-Sanchez IJ, Verpoorte R. Secondary metabolism in cannabis. Phytochem Rev 2008; 7: 615-39.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11101-008-9094-4]
[8]
Pott DM, Osorio S, Vallarino JG. From central to specialized metabolism: an overview of some secondary compounds derived from the primary metabolism for their role in conferring nutritional and organoleptic characteristics to fruit. Front Plant Sci 2019; 10: 835-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.00835] [PMID: 31316537]
[9]
ElSohly MA, Radwan MM, Gul W, Chandra S, Galal A. Phytochemistry of Cannabis sativa L. Prog Chem Org Nat Prod 2017; 103: 1-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45541-9_1] [PMID: 28120229]
[10]
Weinstein A, Livny A, Weizman A. Brain imaging studies on the cognitive, pharmacological and neurobiological effects of cannabis in humans: evidence from studies of adult users. Curr Pharm Des 2016; 22(42): 6366-79.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1381612822666160822151323] [PMID: 27549374]
[11]
Brand EJ, Zhao Z. Cannabis in Chinese medicine: are some traditional indications referenced in ancient literature related to cannabinoids? Front Pharmacol 2017; 8: 108-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2017.00108] [PMID: 28344554]
[12]
Chakravarti B, Ravi J, Ganju RK. Cannabinoids as therapeutic agents in cancer: current status and future implications. Oncotarget 2014; 5(15): 5852-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.2233] [PMID: 25115386]
[13]
Pacher P, Bátkai S, Kunos G. The endocannabinoid system as an emerging target of pharmacotherapy. Pharmacol Rev 2006; 58(3): 389-462.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1124/pr.58.3.2] [PMID: 16968947]
[14]
Kano M, Ohno-Shosaku T, Hashimotodani Y, Uchigashima M, Watanabe M. Endocannabinoid-Mediated Control of Synaptic Transmission 2009; 89: 309-80.
[15]
Di Marzo V, Stella N, Zimmer A. Endocannabinoid signalling and the deteriorating brain. Nat Rev Neurosci 2015; 16(1): 30-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn3876] [PMID: 25524120]
[16]
Iversen L. Cannabis and the brain. Brain 2003; 126(Pt 6): 1252-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awg143] [PMID: 12764049]
[17]
Maccarrone M, Bab I, Bíró T, et al. Endocannabinoid signaling at the periphery: 50 years after THC. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2015; 36(5): 277-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2015.02.008] [PMID: 25796370]
[18]
Zou S, Kumar U. Cannabinoid receptors and the endocannabinoid system: signaling and function in the central nervous system. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19(3): 833.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms19030833] [PMID: 29533978]
[19]
Gonçalves J, Rosado T, Soares S, et al. Cannabis and its secondary metabolites: their use as therapeutic drugs, toxicological aspects, and analytical determination. Medicines (Basel) 2019; 6(1): 31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/medicines6010031] [PMID: 30813390]
[20]
Zuardi AW, Crippa JA, Hallak JE, et al. A critical review of the antipsychotic effects of cannabidiol: 30 years of a translational investigation. Curr Pharm Des 2012; 18(32): 5131-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/138161212802884681] [PMID: 22716160]
[21]
Fellermeier M, Eisenreich W, Bacher A, Zenk MH. Biosynthesis of cannabinoids. Incorporation experiments with (13)C-labeled glucoses. Eur J Biochem 2001; 268(6): 1596-604.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1432-1327.2001.02030.x] [PMID: 11248677]
[22]
Raharjo TJ, Chang W-T, Choi YH, Peltenburg-Looman AMG, Verpoorte R. Olivetol as product of a polyketide synthase in Cannabis sativa L. Plant Sci 2004; 166: 381-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2003.09.027]
[23]
Gaoni Y, Mechoulam R. Isolation, structure, and partial synthesis of an active constituent of hashish. J Am Chem Soc 1964; 86: 1646-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja01062a046]
[24]
Manzanares J, Julian M, Carrascosa A. Role of the cannabinoid system in pain control and therapeutic implications for the management of acute and chronic pain episodes. Curr Neuropharmacol 2006; 4(3): 239-57.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/157015906778019527] [PMID: 18615144]
[25]
Hanuš LO, Meyer SM, Muñoz E, Taglialatela-Scafati O, Appendino G. Phytocannabinoids: a unified critical inventory. Nat Prod Rep 2016; 33(12): 1357-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C6NP00074F] [PMID: 27722705]
[26]
Pertwee RG, Howlett AC, Abood ME, et al. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. LXXIX. Cannabinoid receptors and their ligands: beyond CB1 and CB2. Pharmacol Rev 2010; 62(4): 588-631.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1124/pr.110.003004] [PMID: 21079038]
[27]
Schrot RJ, Hubbard JR. Cannabinoids: Medical implications. Ann Med 2016; 48(3): 128-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/07853890.2016.1145794] [PMID: 26912385]
[28]
Velasco G, Sánchez C, Guzmán M. Towards the use of cannabinoids as antitumour agents. Nat Rev Cancer 2012; 12(6): 436-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrc3247] [PMID: 22555283]
[29]
Kocis PT, Vrana KE. Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol drug-drug interactions. Med Cannabis Cannabinoids 2020; 3: 61-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000507998]
[30]
Sánchez AJ, García-Merino A. Neuroprotective agents: cannabinoids. Clin Immunol 2012; 142(1): 57-67.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clim.2011.02.010] [PMID: 21420365]
[31]
Karas JA, Wong LJM, Paulin OKA, et al. The antimicrobial activity of cannabinoids. Antibiotics (Basel) 2020; 9(7): 406.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9070406] [PMID: 32668669]
[32]
BenHadda T. A question in Morocco now is: Can the cultivation and exploitation of Indian hemp be legalized? 2013.
[33]
BenHadda T. The Moroccan Researchers are ready to bioevaluate Hashisha (Cannabis sativa L) in Pharmaceutical Chemistry but they need a simple authoriçsation from Moroccan Governement. In: Dailymotion. 2013.
[34]
BenHadda T. Important bay bay to cancer by using Moroccan Hashisha (Cannabis sativa L).
[35]
BenHadda T. Research excellence awards: Around twenty research and innovation works awarded for the quality and volume of their scientific output. In: Moracma 2019.
[36]
BenHadda T. Goal: Cannabinoids of Cannabis sativa L are very useful as antitumor agents against breast cancer but it should be used with some careful. Cannabis sativa L Project.
[37]
Freeman TP, Hindocha C, Green SF, Bloomfield MAP. Medicinal use of cannabis based products and cannabinoids. BMJ 2019.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l1141]
[38]
Hazekamp A, Ware MA, Muller-Vahl KR, Abrams D, Grotenhermen F. The medicinal use of cannabis and cannabinoids--an international cross-sectional survey on administration forms. J Psychoactive Drugs 2013; 45(3): 199-210.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2013.805976] [PMID: 24175484]
[39]
Baron EP. Medicinal properties of cannabinoids, terpenes, and flavonoids in cannabis, and benefits in migraine, headache, and pain: an update on current evidence and cannabis science. Headache 2018; 58(7): 1139-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/head.13345] [PMID: 30152161]
[40]
Kogan NM, Mechoulam R. Cannabinoids in health and disease. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2007; 9(4): 413-30.
[PMID: 18286801]
[41]
Whiting PF, Wolff RF, Deshpande S, et al. Cannabinoids for medical use: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2015; 313(24): 2456-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.6358] [PMID: 26103030]
[42]
Fraser JD. Withdrawal symptoms in Cannabis indica addicts. Lancet 1949; 2(6582): 747.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(49)92263-1] [PMID: 15390694]
[43]
Nordstrom BR, Levin FR. Treatment of cannabis use disorders: a review of the literature. Am J Addict 2007; 16(5): 331-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10550490701525665] [PMID: 17882603]
[44]
Grotenhermen F, Müller-Vahl K. The therapeutic potential of cannabis and cannabinoids. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2012; 109(29-30): 495-501.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2012.0495] [PMID: 23008748]
[45]
Ilgen MA, Bohnert K, Kleinberg F, et al. Characteristics of adults seeking medical marijuana certification. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 132(3): 654-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.04.019] [PMID: 23683791]
[46]
Bradford AC, Bradford WD. Medical marijuana laws reduce prescription medication use in medicare part d. Health Aff (Millwood) 2016; 35(7): 1230-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2015.1661] [PMID: 27385238]
[47]
Andreae MH, Carter GM, Shaparin N, et al. Inhaled cannabis for chronic neuropathic pain: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. J Pain 2015; 16(12): 1221-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2015.07.009] [PMID: 26362106]
[48]
Wilsey BL, Deutsch R, Samara E, et al. A preliminary evaluation of the relationship of cannabinoid blood concentrations with the analgesic response to vaporized cannabis. J Pain Res 2016; 9: 587-98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/JPR.S113138] [PMID: 27621666]
[49]
Blackadar CB. Historical review of the causes of cancer. World J Clin Oncol 2016; 7(1): 54-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5306/wjco.v7.i1.54] [PMID: 26862491]
[50]
Rocha FC, Dos Santos Júnior JG, Stefano SC, da Silveira DX. Systematic review of the literature on clinical and experimental trials on the antitumor effects of cannabinoids in gliomas. J Neurooncol 2014; 116(1): 11-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11060-013-1277-1] [PMID: 24142199]
[51]
Todaro B. Cannabinoids in the treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 2012; 10(4): 487-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.6004/jnccn.2012.0048] [PMID: 22491047]
[52]
Smith LA, Azariah F, Lavender VT, Stoner NS, Bettiol S. Cannabinoids for nausea and vomiting in adults with cancer receiving chemotherapy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; 2015(11)CD009464
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009464.pub2] [PMID: 26561338]
[53]
Jatoi A, Windschitl HE, Loprinzi CL, et al. Dronabinol versus megestrol acetate versus combination therapy for cancer-associated anorexia: a North Central Cancer Treatment Group study. J Clin Oncol 2002; 20(2): 567-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2002.20.2.567] [PMID: 11786587]
[54]
Strasser F, Luftner D, Possinger K, et al. Cannabis-In-Cachexia-Study-Group. Comparison of orally administered cannabis extract and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in treating patients with cancer-related anorexia-cachexia syndrome: a multicenter, phase III, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial from the Cannabis-In-Cachexia-Study-Group. J Clin Oncol 2006; 24(21): 3394-400.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2005.05.1847] [PMID: 16849753]
[55]
Canavan C, West J, Card T. The epidemiology of irritable bowel syndrome. Clin Epidemiol 2014; 6: 71-80.
[PMID: 24523597]
[56]
Wong BS, Camilleri M, Eckert D, et al. Randomized pharmacodynamic and pharmacogenetic trial of dronabinol effects on colon transit in irritable bowel syndrome-diarrhea. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2012; 24(4): 358-e169.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2982.2011.01874.x] [PMID: 22288893]
[57]
Esfandyari T, Camilleri M, Ferber I, Burton D, Baxter K, Zinsmeister AR. Effect of a cannabinoid agonist on gastrointestinal transit and postprandial satiation in healthy human subjects: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2006; 18(9): 831-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2982.2006.00834.x] [PMID: 16918762]
[58]
Manzanares J, Urigüen L, Rubio G, Palomo T. Role of endocannabinoid system in mental diseases. Neurotox Res 2004; 6(3): 213-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF03033223] [PMID: 15325960]
[59]
De Aquino JP, Sherif M, Radhakrishnan R, Cahill JD, Ranganathan M, D’Souza DC. The psychiatric consequences of Cannabinoids. Clin Ther 2018; 40(9): 1448-56.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2018.03.013] [PMID: 29678279]
[60]
Jacobus J, Tapert SF. Effects of cannabis on the adolescent brain. Curr Pharm Des 2014; 20(13): 2186-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/13816128113199990426] [PMID: 23829363]
[61]
Mohanraj R, Brodie MJ. Diagnosing refractory epilepsy: response to sequential treatment schedules. Eur J Neurol 2006; 13(3): 277-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-1331.2006.01215.x] [PMID: 16618346]
[62]
Devinsky O, Cilio MR, Cross H, et al. Cannabidiol: pharmacology and potential therapeutic role in epilepsy and other neuropsychiatric disorders. Epilepsia 2014; 55(6): 791-802.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/epi.12631] [PMID: 24854329]
[63]
Pandyan AD, Gregoric M, Barnes MP, et al. Spasticity: clinical perceptions, neurological realities and meaningful measurement. Disabil Rehabil 2005; 27(1-2): 2-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09638280400014576] [PMID: 15799140]
[64]
Zajicek JP, Hobart JC, Slade A, Barnes D, Mattison PG. MUSEC Research Group. Multiple sclerosis and extract of cannabis: results of the MUSEC trial. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2012; 83(11): 1125-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2012-302468] [PMID: 22791906]
[65]
Koppel BS, Brust JCM, Fife T, et al. Systematic review: efficacy and safety of medical marijuana in selected neurologic disorders: report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2014; 82(17): 1556-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000000363] [PMID: 24778283]
[66]
Hemming M, Yellowlees PM. Effective treatment of Tourette’s syndrome with marijuana. J Psychopharmacol 1993; 7(4): 389-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026988119300700411] [PMID: 22291003]
[67]
Rossi S, Bernardi G, Centonze D. The endocannabinoid system in the inflammatory and neurodegenerative processes of multiple sclerosis and of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Exp Neurol 2010; 224(1): 92-102.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.03.030] [PMID: 20353778]
[68]
Pazos MR, Sagredo O, Fernández-Ruiz J. The endocannabinoid system in Huntington’s disease. Curr Pharm Des 2008; 14(23): 2317-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/138161208785740108] [PMID: 18781982]
[69]
Armstrong MJ, Miyasaki JM. American Academy of Neurology. Evidence-based guideline: pharmacologic treatment of chorea in Huntington disease: report of the guideline development subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2012; 79(6): 597-603.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e318263c443] [PMID: 22815556]
[70]
Consroe P, Laguna J, Allender J, et al. Controlled clinical trial of cannabidiol in Huntington’s disease. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1991; 40(3): 701-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0091-3057(91)90386-G] [PMID: 1839644]
[71]
Krishnan S, Cairns R, Howard R. Cannabinoids for the treatment of dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; 2009(2)CD007204
[PMID: 19370677]
[72]
Zadikoff C, Wadia PM, Miyasaki J, et al. Cannabinoid, CB1 agonists in cervical dystonia: Failure in a phase IIa randomized controlled trial. Basal Ganglia 2011; 1: 91-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.baga.2011.04.002]
[73]
Consroe P, Sandyk R, Snider SR. Open label evaluation of cannabidiol in dystonic movement disorders. Int J Neurosci 1986; 30(4): 277-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/00207458608985678] [PMID: 3793381]
[74]
Baker D, Pryce G, Giovannoni G, Thompson AJ. The therapeutic potential of cannabis. Lancet Neurol 2003; 2(5): 291-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(03)00381-8] [PMID: 12849183]
[75]
Hampson AJ, Grimaldi M, Axelrod J, Wink D. Cannabidiol and (-)Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol are neuroprotective antioxidants. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95(14): 8268-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.14.8268] [PMID: 9653176]
[76]
Prum BE Jr, Rosenberg LF, Gedde SJ, et al. Primary open-angle glaucoma preferred practice pattern(®) guidelines. Ophthalmology 2016; 123: 41-p111.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2015.10.053]
[77]
Tomida I, Azuara-Blanco A, House H, Flint M, Pertwee RG, Robson PJ. Effect of sublingual application of cannabinoids on intraocular pressure: a pilot study. J Glaucoma 2006; 15(5): 349-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.ijg.0000212260.04488.60] [PMID: 16988594]
[78]
Marehbian J, Muehlschlegel S, Edlow BL, Hinson HE, Hwang DY. Medical management of the severe traumatic brain injury patient. Neurocrit Care 2017; 27(3): 430-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12028-017-0408-5] [PMID: 28573388]
[79]
Mechoulam R, Spatz M, Shohami E. Endocannabinoids and neuroprotection. Science's STKE 2002.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/stke.2002.129.re5]
[80]
Di Napoli M, Zha AM, Godoy DA, et al. MNEMONICH Registry. Prior cannabis use is associated with outcome after intracerebral hemorrhage. Cerebrovasc Dis 2016; 41(5-6): 248-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000443532] [PMID: 26820826]
[81]
Nguyen BM, Kim D, Bricker S, et al. Effect of marijuana use on outcomes in traumatic brain injury. Am Surg 2014; 80(10): 979-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000313481408001015] [PMID: 25264643]
[82]
Prud’homme M, Cata R, Jutras-Aswad D. Cannabidiol as an intervention for addictive behaviors: a systematic review of the evidence. Subst Abuse 2015; 9: 33-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4137/SART.S25081] [PMID: 26056464]
[83]
Gardner EL. Endocannabinoid signaling system and brain reward: emphasis on dopamine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2005; 81(2): 263-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2005.01.032] [PMID: 15936806]
[84]
Budney AJ, Vandrey RG, Hughes JR, Moore BA, Bahrenburg B. Oral delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol suppresses cannabis withdrawal symptoms. Drug Alcohol Depend 2007; 86(1): 22-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.04.014] [PMID: 16769180]
[85]
Bystritsky A, Khalsa SS, Cameron ME, Schiffman J. Current diagnosis and treatment of anxiety disorders. P & T. Peer-Rev J Formul Manag 2013; 38: 30-57.
[86]
Holtzheimer PE. Advances in the management of treatment-resistant depression. Focus Am Psychiatr Publ 2010; 8(4): 488-500.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/foc.8.4.foc488] [PMID: 25960694]
[87]
Ormel J, Kessler RC, Schoevers R. Depression: more treatment but no drop in prevalence: how effective is treatment? And can we do better? Curr Opin Psychiatry 2019; 32(4): 348-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000505] [PMID: 30855297]
[88]
Ormel J, Cuijpers P, Jorm A, Schoevers RA. What is needed to eradicate the depression epidemic, and why. Ment Health Prev 2020; 17200177
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mhp.2019.200177]
[89]
Sateia MJ. International classification of sleep disorders-third edition: highlights and modifications. Chest 2014; 146(5): 1387-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.14-0970] [PMID: 25367475]
[90]
Garcia AN, Salloum IM. Polysomnographic sleep disturbances in nicotine, caffeine, alcohol, cocaine, opioid, and cannabis use: A focused review. Am J Addict 2015; 24(7): 590-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ajad.12291] [PMID: 26346395]
[91]
Bisson JI, Cosgrove S, Lewis C, Robert NP. Post-traumatic stress disorder. BMJ 2015; 351: h6161.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h6161] [PMID: 26611143]
[92]
Jetly R, Heber A, Fraser G, Boisvert D. The efficacy of nabilone, a synthetic cannabinoid, in the treatment of PTSD-associated nightmares: A preliminary randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over design study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2015; 51: 585-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.11.002] [PMID: 25467221]
[93]
McLoughlin BC, Pushpa-Rajah JA, Gillies D, et al. Cannabis and schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; (10): CD004837
[PMID: 25314586]
[94]
Luo X, Reiter MA, d’Espaux L, et al. Complete biosynthesis of cannabinoids and their unnatural analogues in yeast. Nature 2019; 567(7746): 123-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-0978-9] [PMID: 30814733]
[95]
Appendino G, Gibbons S, Giana A, et al. Antibacterial cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa: a structure-activity study. J Nat Prod 2008; 71(8): 1427-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np8002673] [PMID: 18681481]
[96]
Woelkart K, Salo-Ahen OM, Bauer R. CB receptor ligands from plants. Curr Top Med Chem 2008; 8(3): 173-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/156802608783498023] [PMID: 18289087]
[97]
Elsohly MA, Slade D. Chemical constituents of marijuana: the complex mixture of natural cannabinoids. Life Sci 2005; 78(5): 539-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2005.09.011] [PMID: 16199061]
[98]
Grotenhermen F. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cannabinoids. Clin Pharmacokinet 2003; 42(4): 327-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00003088-200342040-00003] [PMID: 12648025]
[99]
Sirikantaramas S, Taura F, Tanaka Y, Ishikawa Y, Morimoto S, Shoyama Y. Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase, the enzyme controlling marijuana psychoactivity, is secreted into the storage cavity of the glandular trichomes. Plant Cell Physiol 2005; 46(9): 1578-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pcp/pci166] [PMID: 16024552]
[100]
Casiraghi A, Roda G, Casagni E, et al. Extraction method and analysis of cannabinoids in cannabis olive oil preparations. Planta Med 2018; 84(4): 242-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0043-123074] [PMID: 29202510]
[101]
Rovetto LJ, Aieta NV. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa L. J Supercrit Fluids 2017; 129: 16-27.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2017.03.014]
[102]
Azmir J. Techniques for extraction of bioactive compounds from plant materials: A review. J Food Eng 2013; 117(4): 426-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2013.01.014]
[103]
Ramirez CL, Fanovich MA, Churio MS. Chapter 4 Cannabinoids: Extraction methods, analysis, and physicochemical characterization. Atta ur R In: Studies in Natural Products Chemistry. Elsevier 2019; pp. 143-73.
[104]
Fischedick JT, Hazekamp A, Erkelens T, Choi YH, Verpoorte R. Metabolic fingerprinting of Cannabis sativa L., cannabinoids and terpenoids for chemotaxonomic and drug standardization purposes. Phytochemistry 2010; 71(17-18): 2058-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2010.10.001] [PMID: 21040939]
[105]
Huffman JW, Dai D, Martin BR, Compton DR. Design, synthesis and pharmacology of cannabimimetic indoles. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 1994; 4: 563-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0960-894X(01)80155-4]
[106]
Turner SE, Williams CM, Iversen L, Whalley BJ. Molecular pharmacology of phytocannabinoids. Prog Chem Org Nat Prod 2017; 103: 61-101.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45541-9_3] [PMID: 28120231]
[107]
Castaneto MS, Gorelick DA, Desrosiers NA, Hartman RL, Pirard S, Huestis MA. Synthetic cannabinoids: epidemiology, pharmacodynamics, and clinical implications. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 144: 12-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.08.005] [PMID: 25220897]
[108]
Tai S, Fantegrossi WE. Synthetic cannabinoids: pharmacology, behavioral effects, and abuse potential. Curr Addict Rep 2014; 1(2): 129-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40429-014-0014-y] [PMID: 26413452]
[109]
Wiley JL, Marusich JA, Huffman JW. Moving around the molecule: relationship between chemical structure and in vivo activity of synthetic cannabinoids. Life Sci 2014; 97(1): 55-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2013.09.011] [PMID: 24071522]
[110]
Fan F, Compton DR, Ward S, Melvin L, Martin BR. Development of cross-tolerance between delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol, CP 55,940 and WIN 55,212. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1994; 271(3): 1383-90.
[PMID: 7996450]
[111]
Vallance P, Smart TG. The future of pharmacology. Br J Pharmacol 2006; 147(Suppl. 1): S304-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0706454] [PMID: 16402118]
[112]
Grotenhermen F. Pharmacology of cannabinoids. Neuroendocrinol Lett 2004; 25(1-2): 14-23.
[PMID: 15159677]
[113]
Mattes RD, Shaw LM, Engelman K. Effects of cannabinoids (marijuana) on taste intensity and hedonic ratings and salivary flow of adults. Chem Senses 1994; 19(2): 125-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/chemse/19.2.125] [PMID: 8055263]
[114]
Freemon FR. Effects of marihuana on sleeping states. JAMA 1972; 220(10): 1364-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1972.03200100074027] [PMID: 4336774]
[115]
Hampson RE, Deadwyler SA. Cannabinoids, hippocampal function and memory. Life Sci 1999; 65(6-7): 715-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0024-3205(99)00294-5] [PMID: 10462072]
[116]
Fan P. Cannabinoid agonists inhibit the activation of 5-HT3 receptors in rat nodose ganglion neurons. J Neurophysiol 1995; 73(2): 907-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.1995.73.2.907] [PMID: 7760148]
[117]
Haney M, Bisaga A, Foltin RW. Interaction between naltrexone and oral THC in heavy marijuana smokers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2003; 166(1): 77-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-002-1279-8] [PMID: 12491025]
[118]
Lichtman AH, Peart J, Poklis JL, et al. Pharmacological evaluation of aerosolized cannabinoids in mice. Eur J Pharmacol 2000; 399(2-3): 141-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0014-2999(00)00321-6] [PMID: 10884513]
[119]
Knoller N, Levi L, Shoshan I, et al. Dexanabinol (HU-211) in the treatment of severe closed head injury: a randomized, placebo-controlled, phase II clinical trial. Crit Care Med 2002; 30(3): 548-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00003246-200203000-00009] [PMID: 11990913]
[120]
Tashkin DP, Levisman JA, Abbasi AS, Shapiro BJ, Ellis NM. Short-term effects of smoked marihuana on left ventricular function in man. Chest 1977; 72(1): 20-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.72.1.20] [PMID: 326498]
[121]
Benowitz NL, Jones RT. Cardiovascular effects of prolonged delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol ingestion. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1975; 18(3): 287-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cpt1975183287] [PMID: 1164818]
[122]
Melck D, De Petrocellis L, Orlando P, et al. Suppression of nerve growth factor Trk receptors and prolactin receptors by endocannabinoids leads to inhibition of human breast and prostate cancer cell proliferation. Endocrinology 2000; 141(1): 118-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/endo.141.1.7239] [PMID: 10614630]
[123]
Yuan M, Kiertscher SM, Cheng Q, Zoumalan R, Tashkin DP, Roth MD. Delta 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol regulates Th1/Th2 cytokine balance in activated human T cells. J Neuroimmunol 2002; 133(1-2): 124-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0165-5728(02)00370-3] [PMID: 12446015]
[124]
Hembree WC III, Nahas GG, Zeidenberg P, Huang HF. Changes in human spermatozoa associated with high dose marihuana smoking. Adv Biosci 1978; 22-23: 429-39.
[PMID: 574469]
[125]
Appendino G, Taglialatela-Scafati O. Cannabinoids: chemistry and medicine. Natural Products 2013; pp. 3415-35.
[126]
Radwan MM, Elsohly MA, Slade D, Ahmed SA, Khan IA, Ross SA. Biologically active cannabinoids from high-potency Cannabis sativa. J Nat Prod 2009; 72(5): 906-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np900067k] [PMID: 19344127]
[127]
Malis D, Jeršek B, Tomšič B, et al. Antibacterial activity and biodegradation of cellulose fiber blends with incorporated ZnO. Materials (Basel) 2019; 12(20): 3399.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma12203399] [PMID: 31627362]
[128]
Barrett CT, Barrett JF. Antibacterials: are the new entries enough to deal with the emerging resistance problems? Curr Opin Biotechnol 2003; 14(6): 621-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2003.10.003] [PMID: 14662392]
[129]
Gibbons S. Anti-staphylococcal plant natural products. Nat Prod Rep 2004; 21(2): 263-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/b212695h] [PMID: 15042149]
[130]
Marquez L, Quave CL. Prevalence and therapeutic challenges of fungal drug resistance: role for plants in drug discovery. Antibiotics (Basel) 2020; 9(4): 9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9040150] [PMID: 32244276]
[131]
Khan BA, Wang J, Warner P, Wang H. Antibacterial properties of hemp hurd powder against E. coli. J Appl Polym Sci 2015; 132.
[132]
Tahamtan A, Tavakoli-Yaraki M, Rygiel TP, Mokhtari-Azad T, Salimi V. Effects of cannabinoids and their receptors on viral infections. J Med Virol 2016; 88(1): 1-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.24292] [PMID: 26059175]
[133]
Herrera RA, Oved JH, Reiss CS. Disruption of IFN-gamma- mediated antiviral activity in neurons: the role of cannabinoids. Viral Immunol 2008; 21(2): 141-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/vim.2007.0109] [PMID: 18570588]
[134]
Molina-Holgado F, Molina-Holgado E, Guaza C. The endogenous cannabinoid anandamide potentiates interleukin-6 production by astrocytes infected with Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus by a receptor-mediated pathway. FEBS Lett 1998; 433(1-2): 139-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0014-5793(98)00851-5] [PMID: 9738948]
[135]
Solbrig MV, Hermanowicz N. Cannabinoid rescue of striatal progenitor cells in chronic Borna disease viral encephalitis in rats. J Neurovirol 2008; 14(3): 252-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13550280802074521] [PMID: 18569459]
[136]
Karmaus PWF, Chen W, Crawford R, Kaplan BLF, Kaminski NEΔΔ. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol impairs the inflammatory response to influenza infection: role of antigen-presenting cells and the cannabinoid receptors 1 and 2. Toxicol Sci 2013; 131: 419-33.
[137]
Huemer HP, Himmelreich A, Hönlinger B, et al. “Recreational” drug abuse associated with failure to mount a proper antibody response after a generalised orthopoxvirus infection. Infection 2007; 35(6): 469-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s15010-007-6194-9] [PMID: 17917699]
[138]
Sun LJ, Yu JW, Wan L, Zhang XY, Shi YG, Chen MY. Endocannabinoid system activation contributes to glucose metabolism disorders of hepatocytes and promotes hepatitis C virus replication. Int J Infect Dis 2014; 23: 75-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2013.12.017] [PMID: 24704332]
[139]
Wang X, Ho W-Z. Drugs of abuse and HIV infection/replication: implications for mother-fetus transmission. Life Sci 2011; 88(21-22): 972-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2010.10.029] [PMID: 21056582]
[140]
Velasco G, Sánchez C, Guzmán M. Anticancer mechanisms of cannabinoids. Curr Oncol 2016; 23(2): S23-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3747/co.23.3080] [PMID: 27022311]
[141]
Hart S, Fischer OM, Ullrich A. Cannabinoids induce cancer cell proliferation via tumor necrosis factor α-converting enzyme (TACE/ADAM17)-mediated transactivation of the epidermal growth factor receptor. Cancer Res 2004; 64(6): 1943-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-03-3720] [PMID: 15026328]
[142]
McKallip RJ, Nagarkatti M, Nagarkatti PS. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol enhances breast cancer growth and metastasis by suppression of the antitumor immune response. J Immunol 2005; 174(6): 3281-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.174.6.3281] [PMID: 15749859]
[143]
Blázquez C, González-Feria L, Alvarez L, Haro A, Casanova ML, Guzmán M. Cannabinoids inhibit the vascular endothelial growth factor pathway in gliomas. Cancer Res 2004; 64(16): 5617-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-03-3927] [PMID: 15313899]
[144]
Meng Q, Buchanan B, Zuccolo J, Poulin MM, Gabriele J, Baranowski DC. A reliable and validated LC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous quantification of 4 cannabinoids in 40 consumer products. PLoS One 2018; 13(5)e0196396
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196396] [PMID: 29718956]
[145]
Jeong S, Kim MS, Lee SH, Park BD. Epidermal Endocannabinoid System (EES) and its cosmetic application. Cosmetics 2019; 6(2): 33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics6020033]
[146]
Paul R, Williams R, Hodson V, Peake C. Detection of cannabinoids in hair after cosmetic application of hemp oil. Sci Rep 2019; 9(1): 2582.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-39609-0] [PMID: 30796346]
[147]
VanDolah HJ, Bauer BA, Mauck KF. Clinicians’ guide to cannabidiol and hemp oils. Mayo Clin Proc 2019; 94(9): 1840-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2019.01.003] [PMID: 31447137]
[148]
Gómez del Pulgar T, Velasco G, Sánchez C, Haro A, Guzmán M. De novo-synthesized ceramide is involved in cannabinoid-induced apoptosis. Biochem J 2002; 363(Pt 1): 183-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/0264-6021:3630183] [PMID: 11903061]
[149]
Huang T-H, Wang P-W, Yang S-C, Chou W-L, Fang J-Y. Cosmetic and therapeutic applications of fish oil’s fatty acids on the skin. Mar Drugs 2018; 16(8): 256.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md16080256] [PMID: 30061538]
[150]
Wang B, Kovalchuk A, Li D, Ilnytskyy Y, Kovalchuk I, Kovalchuk O. In search of preventative strategies: novel anti-inflammatory high-CBD Cannabis sativa extracts modulate ace2 expression in covid-19 gateway tissues. PrePrints, Molecular Biology 2020.
[151]
Shereen MA, Khan S, Kazmi A, Bashir N, Siddique R. COVID-19 infection: Origin, transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses. J Adv Res 2020; 24: 91-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2020.03.005] [PMID: 32257431]
[152]
Shin MD, Shukla S, Chung YH, et al. COVID-19 vaccine development and a potential nanomaterial path forward. Nat Nanotechnol 2020; 15(8): 646-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41565-020-0737-y] [PMID: 32669664]
[153]
Carliner H, Brown QL, Sarvet AL, Hasin DS. Cannabis use, attitudes, and legal status in the U.S.: A review. Prev Med 2017; 104: 13-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.07.008] [PMID: 28705601]
[154]
Bahji A, Stephenson C. International perspectives on the implications of cannabis legalization: a systematic review & thematic analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2019; 16(17): 3095.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16173095] [PMID: 31454942]
[155]
Rippin T. Scientists begin trials into the effectiveness of cannabis in treating Covid-19. Euro Weekly News Media Group: Spain 2020.
[156]
Wu F, Zhao S, Yu B, et al. A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature 2020; 579(7798): 265-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2008-3] [PMID: 32015508]
[157]
Reiss CS. Cannabinoids and viral infections. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2010; 3(6): 1873-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ph3061873] [PMID: 20634917]
[158]
Onaivi ES, Sharma V. Cannabis for COVID-19: can cannabinoids quell the cytokine storm? Future Sci OA 2020; 6(8)FSO625
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2144/fsoa-2020-0124] [PMID: 32974048]
[159]
Fischer-Stenger K, Updegrove AW, Cabral GA. Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol decreases cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity to herpes simplex virus type 1-infected cells. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1992; 200(3): 422-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3181/00379727-200-43452] [PMID: 1319584]
[160]
Piomelli D, Solomon R, Abrams D, et al. Regulatory barriers to research on cannabis and cannabinoids: a proposed path forward. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2019; 4: 21-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/can.2019.0010]
[161]
Bone M, Seddon T. Human rights, public health and medicinal cannabis use. Crit Public Health 2016; 26(1): 51-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2015.1038218] [PMID: 26692654]
[162]
Leyton M. Legalizing marijuana. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2016; 41(2): 75-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1503/jpn.160012] [PMID: 26898727]
[163]
Pacula RL, Smart R. Medical marijuana and marijuana legalization. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 2017; 13: 397-419.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045128] [PMID: 28482686]
[164]
Svrakic DM, Lustman PJ, Mallya A, Lynn TA, Finney R, Svrakic NM. Legalization, decriminalization & medicinal use of cannabis: a scientific and public health perspective. Mo Med 2012; 109(2): 90-8.
[PMID: 22675784]
[165]
Bridgeman MB, Abazia DT. Medicinal Cannabis: History, pharmacology, and implications for the acute care setting. P & T. Peer-Reviewed J Formul Manag 2017; 42: 180-8.
[166]
Ware MA. Medical cannabis research: issues and priorities. Neuropsychopharmacology 2018; 43(1): 214-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/npp.2017.222] [PMID: 29192670]
[167]
Hasan SS, Shaikh A, Ochani RK, et al. Perception and practices regarding cannabis consumption in Karachi, Pakistan: A cross-sectional study. J Ethn Subst Abuse 2019; 1-19.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15332640.2019.1667287] [PMID: 31566085]
[168]
Thomas BF, Pollard GT. Preparation and distribution of cannabis and cannabis-derived dosage formulations for investigational and therapeutic use in the United States. Front Pharmacol 2016; 7: 285.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2016.00285] [PMID: 27630566]
[169]
Eisenberg E, Ogintz M, Almog S. The pharmacokinetics, efficacy, safety, and ease of use of a novel portable metered-dose cannabis inhaler in patients with chronic neuropathic pain: a phase 1a study. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother 2014; 28(3): 216-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/15360288.2014.941130] [PMID: 25118789]
[170]
Zuurman L, Roy C, Schoemaker RC, et al. Effect of intrapulmonary tetrahydrocannabinol administration in humans. J Psychopharmacol 2008; 22(7): 707-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881108089581] [PMID: 18515447]
[171]
Jacobs DS, Kohut SJ, Jiang S, Nikas SP, Makriyannis A, Bergman J. Acute and chronic effects of cannabidiol on Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC)-induced disruption in stop signal task performance. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2016; 24(5): 320-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pha0000081] [PMID: 27690502]
[172]
Bow EW, Rimoldi JM. The structure-function relationships of classical cannabinoids: CB1/CB2 modulation. Perspect Medicin Chem 2016; 8: 17-39.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4137/PMC.S32171] [PMID: 27398024]
[173]
Degenhardt F, Stehle F, Kayser O. Chapter 2 The Biosynthesis of Cannabinoids. Preedy VR In: Handbook of Cannabis and Related Pathologies. Academic Press: San Diego 2017; pp. 13-23.
[174]
Burrows BT, Watterson LR, Egnatios J, Olive MF. Chapter 71 -Synthetic Cannabinoids: a Summary of Selected Phenomena With Respect to Behavioral Pharmacology and Abuse Liability. Preedy VR, Handbook of Cannabis and Related Pathologies. In: Academic Press: San Diego 2017; pp. 691-9.
[175]
USPTO. U.S. Patent Activity Calendar Years 1790 to the Present: Table of annual U.S. Patent Activity Since 1790. In: Commerce USDo, United States Patent and Trademark Office: Alexandria 2019.

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
60
1
World Health Day
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy